How Bullets Are Made

How bullets are made
The two most common bullet-forming methods are casting and swaging. Hollow points can be formed by either method. Hard (harder than lead) solid bullets can be stamped (a metal punch cuts a bullet-shaped piece out of a bar or sheet of softer metal) and machined from metal stock. Machining includes any process where a machine is used to shape metal by cutting away portions. A typical machine used for bullets is a lathe. A lathe rotates the bullet metal against steel chisels to gradually cut away material.

CASTING A BULLET
Casting is pouring molten metal into a mold. This mold is hinged and when closed has a hollow space that is the shape of the bullet. The metal is melted in a crucible (a metal or ceramic pot that can hold molten metal safely) and then poured into the mold.
After the metal has cooled, the mold is opened and the bullet falls or is knocked out. Any imperfections are removed by cutting or filing. If the bullet is extremely deformed, it can be melted down and the process repeated.
To cast a bullet with multiple sections of different materials, the first material is poured into the mold to partially fill it. After this material has cooled and partially or completely solidified, the second molten material is poured into the mold to fill it partially or completely. This can be done several times, but most often is done twice to create a bullet with a heavier section (for penetration) behind a softer section (for expansion).

SWAGING A BULLET
1 Swaging is a cold forming process, which means that it involves shaping metal without heating to soften or melt it. The appropriate amount of material to be swaged (measured in grains) is placed in a die. A die is a harder metal container with a cavity (an empty space) shaped like the bullet without the back end. The die is part of a larger stationary object or is held in place on a platform.
2 A metal punch that fits into the open end of the die is forced into the die to the appropriate depth. As the punch forces the bullet metal into the die cavity, the material takes the shape of the cavity. The pressure can come from a manual or hydraulic press, from repeated hammer blows, or from a threaded punch that is screwed on. Excess metal is squeezed out of bleed holes.
3 The punch is removed from the die and the bullet is pushed or pulled out of the cavity. Any imperfections are removed by cutting or filing.
4 Multiple swaging steps can be used to insert partitions, to create a bullet out of multiple materials, and to further define the shape of the bullet. Sometimes several steps are necessary to add features such as a hollow point.
The bullet jacket
Some bullets have jackets of harder metal surrounding a softer core.
5 A coin-shaped piece of jacket metal is punched out of a strip or a sheet. The punch is usually a round metal cylinder that is pushed through the jacket material into a depression in a table. Some punches are rounded so that the piece of metal is shaped like a cup. Sometimes, tubing is used instead of a coin or a cup of metal.
6 If the jacket material is too hard to be formed easily, it can be annealed. Annealing is heating the metal, often with a gas flame, to soften it and make it more workable.
7 The jacket material is then placed in a die or over a punch and the punch is forced into the die. There may be several different punches and dies used to form specific features in the jacket. One of usual steps is to make sure that jacket is of uniform thickness. The thickness is typically 0.03-0.07 in (0.08-0.17 cm). Some bullets have a thin jacket electroplated onto the core.
Bullet assembly
8 Jackets and multiple bullet parts can be joined by methods such as swaging them together, casting one section on top of another, soldering, gluing, or electrical welding. Soldering is a process of joining two pieces of metal together with solder, an alloy that is usually tin and lead. The solder is melted and sticks to both pieces of metal, gluing them together after it cools and solidifies. Glues for joining multi-part bullets are usually epoxies, plastics that are formed from two different fluids that harden when combined. The epoxy fluids are dispensed from tubes and mixed, then the pieces are joined together and held in place until the epoxy hardens. Electrical welding is the process of passing a strong electrical current through two metal parts that are in contact so that they soften and stick together. If the joining method is not strong enough, the bullet may fall apart prematurely.
9 Next, grooves may be cut or pressed into the shank of the bullet. The grooves can be pressed into a soft bullet by rotating the bullet against a ridge on a metal wheel, or they can be cut into the bullet on a lathe. Many cast bullets already have grooves.
10 The bullet is sometimes coated with a I O lubricant, usually wax, oil, or moly, which reduces bore fouling from soft bullets. Jacketed and hard bullets are not generally lubricated, though they can be, especially with moly. Bullets are often degreased (put in a solvent bath to remove grease from previous manufacturing steps) before the lubricant is applied.
11 Wax and oil lubricants can be applied by rubbing with a soft material such as a cloth wheel, spraying, pouring, or dipping. Moly is applied by placing bullets in a container of moly powder and rotating the container so that the bullet and the moly particles tumble around until the bullet is coated.
12 The completed bullets are then manually removed and packaged.
Source : www.madehow.com

InfraRed LED Flasher for Optical Switch

InfraRed LED Flasher for Optical Switch
This circuit is used to detect objects by reflected infrared light. It can be built into a cylindrical enclosure just like an inductive proximity switch.
This is also useful as a level detector for colored liquids like oil. This has some immunity to ambient sunlight as it detects ac pulses.
IC 555 is used as an astable oscillator and it flashes the Infra red LED D1 at a high speed, The object close to this LED reflects the light along with the ambient light which may also be sunlight.
IR Led’s and Diodes
The types available are various and polarity hard to detect even photo IR transistors can be used. The IR Led can be tested in diode mode of a DMM (battery should be in good condition) it should give around 1.1V drop in proper polarity. An IR detector diode or photo diode can be tested in the same way the drop will be 0.5V at 1 feet from a 60W lamp (no sunlight), closing the IR photo diode with your hand will be an over range on DMM this will happen on proper polarity. the photo diode shows around 10k ohm resistance in daylight and in Mega ohms when covered also the photo diode detects light on reverse bias and used like that.

Some Useful Terms Of Economics

Capital Cost :

(i) The cost of field development and plant construction and the equipment required for industry operations.
(ii) The cost which is neccesary for initial stage in any project .

Re-Current Cost :

That cost which is neccesary for maintaining and continue any project after the completation.

Financial Cost :

Financila cost represent the rate of return required by investors which provide a compony with funds.

Shadow Price :

Shadow price is the change in the objective value of the optimal solution of an optimization problem obtained by relaxing the constrant by one unit.

Efficiency :

The ratio of the output to the input of any system.

Collective Goods :

Collective goods (or social goods) are defined as public gods that could be deliverd as private goods but are usually delivered by the government for various reason including social ploicy and fiance from public funds like taxes.

Public Goods :

Public goods are goods or services that can be consumed by the several individual simultaneosly without diminshing the value of consuption to any one of the individuals.

Exrenalities :

An externalities occurs when the action of consumers or firms directly affect the wellbeing of other consumers or the production capabilities of other firms other than through the price mechanism of the market.

Opportunity Cost :

The cost of an alternative that must be forgone in order to pursue a certain action.

Profit-Maximization :

Profit maximization is the process by which a firm determines the price and output level that returns the greatest profit.

Diminishing Returns :

This economic law states that, other factors remaining unchanged, the successive closes of labour and capital in agriculture result in increase in production but a diminishing rate.

Missing Market :

A missing market is a sitution in microeconomics where a cometative market allowing the exchange of commodity would be pareto efficient , but no such market exists.

Market Power :

In economics, market power is the ability of a firm to alter the market price of a good or services. A firm with market power can raise prices without losing all customers to competitors.

How to correct market failure?

Market Failure
Market failure occurs when freely-functioning markets, operating without government intervention, fail to deliveran efficient or optimal allocation of resources.

Government Interventation To Correct Market Failure

1. Command and control techniques(including regulation)
2. Govt. subsidy and other form of financial assistance.
3. Taxation (including indirect taxes designed to control pollution)
4. Policies to increase compitation and reduce the immobility of factors of production.
5. Provision and finance of public and merit goods.

Market Failure and Its Types

Market Failures
The normative theory of market-failure predicts that regulation will be instituted to improve economic efficiency and protect social values by correction market imperfections. Six types of market-failures are explained here: Natural monopoly, Externalities, Public Goods, Asymmetric information, Moral hazard, Transaction cots. Anyone of these six failures legitimates regulation.

1.Natural Monopoly
A monopoly is natural if one firm can produce a given set of goods or services at lower cost than can any other number of firms. A natural monopoly results when costs are decreasing in the scale of a firm (economy of scale) or in the scope of its products or services (economy of scope). In natural monopoly situations the monopolists will raise his costs and tariffs because he lakes incentives for efficiency and is interested in the maximization of profit.
Before concluding that regulation is warranted under the natural monopoly rationale, two questions must be answered. The first is whether there are any natural monopolies, and if there are, whether significant economic efficiency or social welfare would be gained by regulation. Economies of scale and scope certainly exist over some sets of goods and services, but these economies can be exhausted at output levels that allow more than one supplier to persist in the market. Empirical studies indicate, for example, that the large electric power plants in the United States have exhausted the achievable economies of scale. A natural monopoly can also result if having more than one supplier would result in an uneconomical duplication of facilities. Local electricity distribution systems within cities may remain a monopoly to avoid duplicate sets of distribution wires. This rationale does not necessarily apply in the telecommunications industry, since cable television and wireless communications systems provide alternatives to the local wire connections.
If there is a natural monopoly, it does not necessarily follow that there is substantial economic inefficiency. First, if entry into the industry is easy, the threat of potential competition may limit the extent to which an incumbent monopolist can restrict output (and raise prices). Second a monopolist may choose to use a pricing policy, involving fixed charges and a low unit price, which can both increase profits and benefits consumers. Third, if there are a number of possible suppliers of a monopoly service, competitive bidding for the right to be the monopolist can be used to lower the supply price and increase economic efficiency. Similarly, an alternative to the regulation of the electric power industry is for communities to own the local distribution system and bargain with power companies for the supply of electricity.

2.Externalities

Private market activities create so-called spillovers or externalities. They include any cost or benefit not accounted for in the price of goods or services. A positive externality exists when a producer cannot appropriate all the benefits of the activities it has undertaken. An example would be research and development that yields benefits to society (e.g., employment in industry) that the producer cannot capture. Thus, the producer's incentive is to under-invest in the activity unless government subsidized or protect it. With positive externalities, too little of the good in question is produced. With negative ones too much is made. Negative externalities such as air pollution occur when the producer cannot be charged all the costs. Since the external costs do not enter the calculations the producer makes, the producer manufactures more of the good than is socially beneficial. With both positive and negative externalities, market outcomes need some kind of regulation to be more efficient.

3.Public Goods

A pure public good is one whose consumption by one person does not reduce its availability for others. When a person consumes a private good such as an apple, it is not available for consumption by others. When a person consumes a good such as national defense or a radio broadcast, however, the amount of the good available for consumption by others is not diminished.
For some public goods, such as national defense, bridges, and roads, government provision is customary. Public provision, however, does not imply that a good has the characteristics of a public good. Many goods, such as public housing, food stamps, and solid-bank programs, are provided by government for redistributive purposes rather than because they are public goods. Also, public goods can be supplied by the private sector. Radio and television broadcasts are provided by private enterprises subject only to non-economic regulation.
A fundamental problem with either private or public provision centers on the "revelation of preferences" for public goods. If those who benefit from a public good are asked to contribute an amount reflecting their valuations, an individual may decide to free ride on the payments of others. Because of the free-rider problem, public provision may be warranted. This, however, does not resolve the problem of determining the public's aggregate valuation of the good and thus whether it should be supplied. If individuals could be excluded from consuming the public good the revelation and free-rider problem could be resolved - at least in principle. For example, not allowing satellite-dish ownership free reception of cable television induces customers to pay for the service.
Fire protection has the properties of a local public good is typically supplied by municipalities and paid for by the taxes of the beneficiaries. It can be provided privately, though, if exclusion can be practiced. Tim Emerson of Illinois learned this the hard way when his nearly completed house caught fire from a space heater. He called the Taylorville firefighters. They responded to his call. When they got to the house, they asked if the house were covered by the fire protection plan. Emerson, who had not paid the $25 fee, said, "No". The firefighters asked if there were anyone inside. When Emerson replied "No", they drove away, letting the house burn to the grounds.

4.Asymmetric Information
If people have different (private) information at the time they act, markets may not perform efficiently, even when there are advantageous trades that could be made. Akerlof presents an example of a sued car market in which each seller knows the value of the car she/he wants to sell but the buyers known only the probability distribution of the values of the cars that might be offered for sale. There is a potential buyer who is willing to buy each used car, but the buyer cannot through causal inspection determine the value of any particular used car offered for sale. All he knows is that the car might be a lemon or might be of high quality.
Because of this asymmetry of information, the maximum amount the buyer is willing to pay is the average of the values of the cars believed to be offered for sale. Because buyers will only pay the average value, those potential sellers who have high-quality car then find that the amount buyers are willing to pay is less than the values of their cars. They thus will not offer their cars for sale. … This is clearly inefficient, because for every used car there is a buyer who wishes to buy it if he only knew the true value.
This phenomenon also occurs when sellers have incomplete information about customers. Insurance is, in principle, to provide coverage for individuals with similar risk characteristics. When those characteristics cannot be readily assessed, however, people with quite different risks are placed in the same pool. The higher risk individuals then have an incentive to buy insurance, which can drive up the price of insurance a cause some low-risk individuals not to buy insurance. Insurance companies respond to this adverse reaction by requiring a physical examination for life insurance and basing auto insurance rates on accident and traffic citation records and on the number of years of driving experience.
When market participation havincomplete information and acquiring information is co, markets may not function efficiently. The mandated provision of information through regulation may then be warranted. Regulation may not be warranted in all situations involving asymmetric information, however. Information has value, so there is a demand for it. In the used car example, a potential buyer may take the car to a mechanic for inspection. More generally, individuals may invest in information acquisition or hire agents who are more knowledgeable than they are.
Information, however, can remain under-supplied because it is the self-interest of its possessor not to supply it. Manufacturers are understandably reluctant to release negative information about potential hazards associated with their products because doing so may reduce demand. Consequently, consumers may be poorly informed about hazards. Similarly, an employee may be incompletely informed about possible health and safety hazards in the workplace. In such situations, the liability system may serve as partial alternative to regulation.

5.Moral Hazard
Moral hazard refers to the presence of incentives for individuals to act in ways that incur costs that they do not have to bear. For example, in medical care, a fully insured individual has an effectively unlimited demand for medical care, since she/he doesn't bear the cost of the care they receive. In addition, the individual may not have the proper incentive to take socially efficient preventive measures, since she/he knows that the cost of any illness or accident will be covered by insurance. Similarly, the provision of federally funded flood insurance encourages people to live in areas prone to flooding and can lead to socially inefficient local decision.
Regulation is one response to moral hazard problems, but regulation can also cause moral hazard making regulation itself less effective. In a controversial article Peltzman argued that the automobile safety regulation induced drivers to take more risks, thus reducing the effectiveness of mandatory safety standards.
The principal means of dealing with moral hazards is to structure incentives so that the induced behavior is taken into account. In the case of medical insurance, co-payments can be required and reimbursement limits imposed. Moral hazard can also be addressed by monitoring the behavior of individuals to increase the likelihood that they take proper care. Fine for not wearing a set belt is an example of monitoring.

6.Transactions Costs
Market failures can also result from costs associated with making market transactions. To the extent consumers and producers incur costs in becoming informed about market opportunities and completing market transactions, markets will not perform efficiently. Regulation to reduce those transactions costs then can improve efficiency. For example, in the auto industry global auto emissions standards can enhance efficiency, as auto producers would not have to produce different models for different states.
As an example, a common problem in markets is the incentive for sellers to shirk on the quality of the goods or services they sell. When quality can only be observed through use, a seller may have an incentive to shirk. As long as a high quality good is more costly to produce than a low-quality good and a consumer cannot tell the difference until after it is purchased, the seller's strategy can be to cut back on quality.
Markets however can resolve some of these problems. For example, If consumers can sully the reputation of the firm by informing other consumers that the firm shirked on quality, consumers will not purchase from that firm.

An Overview Of The Donor Funding To NGOs In Pakistan

An Overview of the Donor Funding to NGOs in Pakistan
Over the last decade or so international donor agencies have increasingly given greater prominence to the role of NGOs in social welfare and development of the civil society. This prominence has not only been in the form of greater financial amounts being given in grants to NGOs but also as a proportion of the total aid given to countries. This increase in funding both in real and relative terms has seen a substantial growth of NGOs all over the world and especially in the developing nations of the South. Pakistan too, which has a relatively young NGO sector has seen growth in the number of NGOs over the last decade. Today, over three hundred intermediary organizations provide social services through a network of grassroots, and many more local community-based organizations (CBOs) are working to address basic social needs at the community level. According to the SPDC/JHU/AKF Report of April, 2002 there are almost 45,000 active organizations in the non-profit sector. These organizations vary greatly in terms of their size, competence, and transparency, focus and impact. They address a varying range of issues from education, income generation, micro-finance, irrigation, and health, to democracy and rights.Similarly the last decade and a half has also seen an increase in the number of donors in Pakistan. Over 50 percent of the donors in this directory have begun operating in Pakistan after 1980 and now a number of UN agencies, CIDA have offices and staff based in Islamabad. This local presence enables them to better understand the local scenario as well as more easily interact with their recipient partners. Yet with increasing possibilities through the Internet to develop relationships many donors, small and large provide funds to Pakistan without being based in the country. Examples of such are the Packard Foundation, the Ford Foundation and the Bill Gates Foundation.

Who do Donors Fund?
A review of the mission statements of donors (included in the directory) suggests some common threads. All donors state philanthropic reasons for their support, most of them emphasizing poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Many also identify improvement in the lives of vulnerable groups such as women and children. In this directory 87 percent of the donors are working for women, 73 percent for low-income groups and 69 percent for children.Many reasons are cited for why donors provide support to NGOs: the donor–NGO relationship is a mutually beneficial one. In fact the reasons may be as many as the donors; Some common cited include:
• Governments as well as civil society organizations in the donor countries feel a social responsibility towards the developing countries. Colonialism is seen as being a reason for the North-South divide and many seek to redress this balance through assistance and aid. Those providing support targeted at vulnerable groups such as children and women increasingly see NGOs as being more efficient, cost-effective, better able to hit the target of vulnerable groups.
• With increasing globalization most countries of the North have developed strong commercial interests in the South. The South not only provides them with potential human and natural resources but also potentially expansive markets. A strong civil society can bring about a stable environment for business. In addition a developing nation will provide a market with greater purchasing power.
• Through development sector relationships, the North increases its understanding of the South which advances its geographical outreach.
• The North has a political and ideological commitment to democracy. More and more so, development ideals such as participation, equality, empowerment, and good governance are being promoted. Moreover, there is an increasing trend towards supporting advocacy within the civil sector.

The Donors – An Overview
It must be remembered however that donors, like NGOs are not homogenous in nature and consists of various different types of organizations - from vast multilateral donors consisting of substantial funds from several member countries such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank - to embassies like the Dutch, the British, and the Norwegian that have projects funds usually for innovative activities executed by NGOs. International NGOs also contribute substantial amounts of financial support to local NGOs and unlike multilateral and government funding agencies, seldom provide assistance to governments.International philanthropic foundations such as the Ford Foundation and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation are also extending upon the tradition of philanthropy from the private to the social sector and are increasingly contributing vast sums of money towards philanthropy in the South. While local philanthropy is also a potentially vast source of resources for NGOs it remains largely based on individual initiatives, and is only beginning to get organized in the sense of organized philanthropy in the North. Yet some local donors such as the Rangoonwala Fund and the Infaaq Foundation do provide funds to CBOs. Corporations such as Unilever Pakistan Ltd, Engro and Shell and business association such as the Rotary and Lions, and the German and British Women’s Associations also provide funds to smaller NGO initiatives.Funding amounts vary depending upon the donor policies and the capacity of the NGO to utilize funds. NGOs having a sound track record and an effective organizational structure with proper accounting, monitoring and evaluation systems in place are more likely to receive larger and repeated grants. NGOs that are able to show the effectiveness of their programs are also more likely to receive grants. Yet many donors have windows with small grants for organizations just starting out. Similarly different donors have different policies on whether or not they will support an NGO beyond one project cycle. Some donors prefer to work with seed grants encouraging recipients to find alternative sources of funding, while other donor-NGO partnerships tend to be longer term with an emphasis on organizational development and institution building.Sometimes donors also provide loans to NGOs. This is particularly so within the micro finance sector. Recently the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank provided a loan to the Khushali Bank so that they in turn could provide small-scale loans for the development of micro-enterprise. Similarly the Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) set up by the Government of Pakistan in partnership with the World Bank, extend loans to NGOs. These loans are often given in conjunction with grants that support capacity building of partner NGOs. Apart from financial support, donors also provide technical assistance through provision of expertise in special areas, contribution in kind (vehicles, buildings, machinery etc.) and providing capacity-building opportunities to recipient organizations. These may come as part of the financial assistance package or may be requested for separately from the donors. For example UNAIDS will often provide support for members of NGOs working within the HIV/AIDS sector to attend international conferences. The donors are increasingly becoming more stringent on monitoring and evaluation. This can range from the submission of reports by the NGOs, to ‘missions’ (visits) by the donors to the project area to see the utilization of the grant money or to more extensive evaluation missions where programs and projects are evaluated by external evaluators. Donors too have at times played an active role in advocating an enabling environment for NGOs as in their advocacy efforts against the NGO Bill in 1996. Similarly the Country Assistance Strategies of the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank have encouraged participation of stakeholders during the strategy formulation process.So what is the role of the state within this NGO-donor relationship? The state plays an important role in the creation of an enabling environment for the civil society. In addition, the government provides benefits (such as tax or customs duties exemptions) to NGOs. On the other hand, International donors, based in Pakistan, do sign protocols/ Memorandum of Understanding with the government and when they give funds to an NGO they are required to inform the Economic Affairs Division (EAD).Operating partnership combing donor, NGO and government are also becoming more common. Donors finance the relationship so that the government and the NGO can derive mutual benefits. Donors sometimes provide money to the government or to credible NGOs to set up social investment funds, which then provides financial and technical support to other NGOs. Two examples of such social investment funds are of CIDA providing money to the Aga Khan Foundation for Pakistan Social Institutions Development Programme (PAKSID), and of USAID who provided an endowment for Trust for Voluntary Organizations (TVO).

Changing Priorities
Most donors have their own sectoral and geographical preferences (please see thematic matrix on page xii). Over the years, development ideologies and priority areas continue to change and adapt. Development funding has moved from a more charitable approach, to one that aimed at economic betterment to more recently, an approach that promotes empowerment. So, for example, work with women has moved from a ‘include’ women-in-development approach to one of gender empowerment which focuses on promoting gender equality. Population reduction theories and strategies have shifted their focus to family planning, to now a wider and more empowering reproductive health approach. Donors not only change their priority areas but also how much they will give and their preferences for partnership (directly to NGOs or through government, long term or small projects). Sometimes donors will entirely close down their program in one country while new donors are always coming in to identify new areas of support.There are multiple reasons for these changes. Always, to some measure donor country foreign policy affects its development aid. Thus the Labour government in the UK saw a substantial increase in grants to developing countries, while the present American government’s policies regarding organizations who provide abortion services has seen a substantial decrease in funds to many reproductive health organizations. The donor’s changing financial or economic status also affects their ability to fund. Following 11th September, corporate sector donors whose stock values fell had to reduce the amount that they were able to commit in the future. International conferences such as the conference on sustainable development in South Africa influence and shape development agendas and governments and donors make commitments which they later strive to meet. Southern countries are increasingly beginning to effectively mobilize and lobby donor agencies towards the agendas of the South. Thus, for example, the International Forum for Capacity Building aims to provide greater voice to NGOs to negotiate with donors.Recipient country politics also influence donor funding policies and procedures. Donors sometimes use funds as political leverage and increase and withdraw assistance to influence policies of the government of the time. Following the testing of nuclear weapons in Pakistan in 1998, the donor community came down strong on the funds that were not only being provided to the Government but also to NGOs. Finally, international tools for monitoring development such as the Human Development Index and other social indicators too influence which fields a donor will prioritize. Similarly donors will often commission in-country research or needs assessments to assess new strategic directions.

The NGO – Donor Relationship – A Critique
Without the substantial funds that have been received by NGOs from donors it would perhaps have been impossible for NGOs to become providers of social and economic services on the scale they do. There is no doubt that donor funding sometimes does allow NGOs to work on issues which are at times not prioritized on the domestic agenda. The vulnerable are often marginalized when there are so many conflicting demands on limited resources. Foreign funding can give voice to interest groups who otherwise would be stifled in a closed political environment. NGOs also tend to prefer raising funds from international donors because they are better organized through a systematic approach to facilitate the relationship (69 percent of the donors within this directory state that they have specific guidelines and forms). But the NGO-donor sector has its weaknesses and both must be aware of their limitations so that both strive to continually improve. There is no doubt that while international donor agencies can be strong proponents of transparency and democracy, sometimes their own systems can be inflexible and not entirely transparent. What is right for the recipient of aid must be right for the donor. Donors must meet the standards of performance that they expect recipient governments or organizations to achieve.International agencies have a tendency to support projects rather then programs, which makes it very difficult for NGOs to maintain and build upon their human expertise over time or for them to secure their administrative costs. This weakens institutional learning as well as the NGOs chances for institutional growth over the long term. Official funding compromises the performance of NGOs in development activities such as institutional development and advocacy that require long-term strategies with few short-term outputs.Donor agencies are sometimes criticized for policies that in reality only serve the economic interests of their own countries. Thus policies which only allow for vehicles to be imported from specified countries or technical assistance to be secured from consultants of specified countries may not be the most effective way to meet the local needs as they may cause delays and other complications.Several successful NGO initiatives have suffered because of their over-dependence on foreign donor support. The NGO community and development sector in general has not yet been able to tap into the vast financial and voluntary resources available within the local communities. This is especially the case in Pakistan where recent studies by the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) show that during 1997-8 Pakistani’s gave Rs. 30 billion in money alone, for philanthropic purposes. This is 5 times more than Pakistan received in outright grants from foreign aid. The NGO sector must become better adept at including local philanthropists into the NGO-donor partnership. It is in this way that we will move towards greater self-reliance and sustainability. Therefore, it is essential for NGOs to diversify their sources of funding not only between different donors but also between different types of donor.The acceptance of increasing amounts of donor funds, which usually come with complex requirements for project appraisal, reporting, evaluation and accounting, presents even larger NGOs with difficulties. This official funding and its requirements can sometimes skew the accountability of NGOs away from grassroots and other internal constituencies.Donor agencies usually are convinced to support development NGOs, as they can reach people and places that governments often cannot and their bottom-up approach helps communities to express their needs and use their own abilities. However, many governments in developing countries feel that with the vast amounts of aid money flowing through NGOs, these organizations are becoming competitors to what would normally be government’s responsibilities. NGOs often, rather than addressing these legitimate fears - usually respond by being very critical of the government. For the future development of the country, it is imperative that the NGO-government relationships improve so that they are partners in development rather then competitors for resources.Finally the NGO sector must realize its own social responsibility. With the changing political scenarios in the world, international agencies cannot be seen as an unending source of funds, nor must the sector fall into the trap that it is only the international donors to whom they are accountable. The NGO sector is ultimately responsible for the impact of its work. It must change lives, it must contribute towards changing the future of our country and it must be driven by vision. We must build upon the windows of opportunity that external and local donors provide us today so that tomorrow we are able to do the same for others.

Buliding Linkages with Donors

Building Linkages with Donors
Some Tips
Searching for the Right Donors
1. A diversity of income sources is the best way to become financially independent. Due to their non-profit status, many NGOs may not immediately be in the position to generate enough income to allow them to decrease their dependence on external funding, however cost recovery, volunteerism and money derived from private donations, for example, can be an important source of revenue. When drawing out a financial plan, consider alternative options to international donors. An ability to find some portion of funding through alternative sources will always strengthen your chances of raising funds with international donors.

2. Do not place all you eggs in one basket. There are several international donors from different levels and with different policies. Diversify your donor base and invest time in building relationships with more than one donor at a time. Spread your risks and build a more stable financial base. This way if one donors policies change or they are no longer willing to provide funds then you have other partnerships to rely on. At the same time working with too many donors can be time consuming and difficult to manage.

3. Identifying and even contacting donors does not necessarily have to wait for the completion of the proposal. You can start identifying donors as soon as the initial design, or the basic idea, is complete. The first stage in identifying a donor is to find out about as many agencies as possible that might have an interest in funding your project, especially those donors that have funded similar projects to yours. Understand the donors requirements and their priority interests before approaching them with concept papers or proposals. Most donors have web sites or information materials describing their sectoral interests and priorities. This directory also aids you to identify the areas of interest of donors.

4. Get donors to appreciate and understand your strategic choices rather then developing proposals aiming to appease donors and their priorities.

5. Allow for time. It is not easy to generate funds. Raising funds for small projects can take 6 to 8 months and for larger projects (of 3 to 5 years duration) over a year. It may be better to approach a donor with a one-year proposal, establish links and a rapport and then apply for a longer-term proposal.
Submitting Proposals
6. NGOs need to invest more in their own organizational development. This means more attention to research, learning, monitoring and evaluation, so that the all-important link between performance measurement and accountability can be strengthened. Above all, it means be clear about the over all direction of the organization and its function in society. Do not develop and raise funds for projects which are devoid of a larger programmatic goal.

7. Some donors (especially larger ones) do prefer submission of concept papers that can save time for all parties. Find out if the agency would be interested in a short (2-5 page) concept paper before submitting a detailed proposal.

8. Before making an application do read the donors requirements thoroughly and ensure that all are met through your application. Donors often reject proposals because they are incomplete. Before sending the proposal double check to ensure full compliance with the donor’s requirements.

9. Be specific and to the point in your communication with donors. When few sentences will suffice, do not write a page.

10. Once you have submitted your proposal do try and identify a contact persons and follow up periodically with them. However respect the donor’s procedures and norms.
Once the Proposal has been accepted
11. Wait for final approval of the grant, in writing, before embarking upon project activities.

12. Do not hesitate to negotiate the terms of the contracts. You are developing a partnership, the terms of which may be adjusted by both partners upon mutual agreement. One example of this is if there are multiple donors funding a programme then often joint reporting on the whole program, may be acceptable to the donors.

13. Develop written contracts. This ensures that there is a clear understanding of the roles and responsibilities of both partners. Most donors have standardized contracts or letters of agreement. Ensure that any adjustments that are made are done so in writing and approved by both parties.

14. Once a proposal has been accepted be fully aware and mindful of your obligations/ responsibilities. Ensure that contractual obligations are fully met. Your reputation with one donor is often communicated to others and your ability to perform and your effectiveness is the best way of increasing your chances for future funding. Work hard at demonstrating credibility and maintaining trust.

15. Be transparent. If savings are made in one sphere, request your donor to adjust budget lines elsewhere. If you have money left over then request no cost extensions. If you do not conduct certain activities explain why, and suggest alternative courses of action. Do not try and make such adjustments on your own without written approval from the donor.

Poverty and its types

Poverty :
the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions.
OR
A poverty refers to the condition of not having the means to afford basic human needs such as cleanwater, nutritition, health care, clothing and shelter.

Types Of Poverty :
There are two major types of poverty

1. Absolute Poverty
2. Relative Poverty

Absolute Poverty :

A level of poverty when only the minimum levels of food, clothing and shelter can be met.

Relative Poverty :

Relative poverty or inequality refers to the position of an individual or household in relation to the average income and or expenditure.

There are seven poverties that are affecting to the people :

1. Economic Poverty : Lack of food, clothing and shelter.

2. Bodily Poverty : Lack of health and hygiene, malnutrition.

3. Mental Poverty : Lack of thinking and education.

4. Cultural Poverty : Lack of cultural activities and practices.

5. Spritual Poverty : Lack of mental peace and feeling of brotherhood.

6. political poverty : Not casting one's vote, lack of development.

7. Social Poverty : Lack of unity and neighborliness.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT Analysis
What is it?
You can use a SWOT analysis to identify and analyze the Strengths and Weaknesses of your organization, as well as the Opportunities and Threats revealed by the information you have gathered on the external environment.

Who uses it?
The team members, the managers.

Why use it?
To develop a plan that takes into consideration many different internal and external factors, and maximizes the potential of the strengths and opportunities while minimizing the impact of the weaknesses and threats.

When to use it?
While developing a strategic plan or planning a solution to a problem, after you have analyzed the external environment (for example, the culture, economy, health, sources of funding, demographics, etc.)

How to use it:
Internal Analysis: Examine the capabilities of your organization. This can be done by analyzing your organization's strengths and weaknesses.

External Analysis: Look at the main points in the environmental analysis, and identify those points that pose opportunities for your organization, and those that pose threats or obstacles to performance.
If you need additional information, you can find out what your users think by using a user survey or a tally sheet.Decide whether the answers or the data collected reveal external opportunities or threats.

Irrigation System and It's Types

What is Irrigation?
Irrigation is the replacement or supplementation of rain water with another source of water. The main idea behind irrigation systems is that your lawns and plants are maintained with the minimum amount of water required.
Water is a fragile natural resource and we have to incorporate methods to conserve it and not over use it. The implementation of an irrigation system will help conserve water, while saving you time, money, preventing weed growth and increasing the growth rate of your lawns, plants, crops and flowers.


TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Ditch Irrigation
Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals. This system of irrigation was once very popular in the USA, but most have been replaced with modern systems.


Terraced Irrigation
This is a very labor intensive method of irrigation where the land is cut into steps and supported by retaining walls. The flat areas are used for the planting and the idea is that the water flows down each step, while watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used for planting crops.

Drip Irrigation
This is known as the most water efficient method of irrigation. Water drops right near the root zone of a plant in a dripping motion. If the system is installed properly you can steadily reduce the loss of water through evaporation and runoff.

Sprinkler System
This is an irrigation system based on overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns, installed on permanent risers. You can also have the system buried underground and the sprinklers rise up when water pressure rises, which is a popular irrigation system for use on golf courses and parks.

Rotary Systems
This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas, for the sprinklers can reach distances of up to 100 feet. The word “Rotary” is indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers moving in a circular motion, hence reaching greater distances. This system water a larger area with small amounts of water over a longer period of time.

Center Pivot Irrigation
This is a form of overhead irrigation. Steel or aluminum pipes are joined together, supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers. The sprinklers are situated on the length of the tower and they move in a circular motion.

BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
We will now discuss some of the benefits associated with the installation of an automatic irrigation system for your landscape and the environment.
Saves Time
An automatic irrigation system will save you plenty of time that you in the past would have spent watering your lawns, gardens and flowers. You can now have your timers set, so that watering will take place at the times that best suits your landscape and the climate where you live. You can go on that holiday knowing that your lawns and flowers will be maintained and flourishing when you return.


Saves Money
With an automatic irrigation system there is no money or water wasted, for everything is timed, programmed and these systems all have rain sensors, so every drop of water is used when it is needed only.

Saves Water
Whatever type of irrigation system you install; there will definitely be a greater saving on water. You can help conserve water with automatic systems, for there is no wasting of water, every drop is used not wasted away. You can save between 30 and 50 percent of the water that you would normally use with other more conventional watering methods.

Improves Growth
When plants, crops, lawns or flowers are watered with smaller amounts of water over a longer period of time, they grow faster, for it is the ideal conditions for growth. You will enjoy greener and more luscious gardens and lawns.

Weed Reduction
You will notice a reduction in the amount of weeds appearing, this is due to the fact that those areas that need water are the only areas receiving water, with the implementation of a specifically designed irrigation system.

Micro Enterprise

What is a Micro enterprise?
Micro enterprises defied a definition. Street venders, carpenters, machine shop operators. Seamstresses and peasant farmers---micro entrepreneurs come in all types, and their businesses in many sizes. This diverse group requires a variety of support to grow and improve. Many of these men and women and their employees are poor and have limited access to services. But they do not lack potential. More than 80 percent of the businesses in Latin America and the Caribbean have l 0 employees or less, and they account for as much as half of all employment in many countries. Numbered at some 50 million, these micro enterprises can no longer be considered marginal. They are the heart of the region's economy.

REDUCING POVERTY
Microenterprises contribute significantly to economic growth, social stability and equity. The sector is one of the most important vehicles through which low-income people can escape poverty. With limited skills and education to compete for formal sector jobs, these men and women find economic opportunities in microenterprise as business owners and employees.
In Chile. for example, a Banco del Desarrollo evaluation found that 88 percent of the bank's microenterprise clients, who represent the poorest groups, improved their standard of living after receiving a loan.

ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN
Women-owned businesses make up one of the fastest growing segments of microenterprise. In Latin America and the Caribbean, women own and operate 30-60 percent of such companies. ne work women do outside the home is usually in addition to the care they provide for their families, which limits their business opportunities. Moreover, they often face even greater obstacles than their male counterpane in getting credit from formal sources.
Increased income in the hands of women is invested in health, education and housing for their families. As micro entrepreneurs, women not only make a huge contribution to national income, but they also create reliable social safety nets for their families and communities.

WHAT INHIBITS MICROENTERPRISE GROWTH?
Official policies often make business difficult for micro entrepreneurs. Improved business regulations, tax regimes, licensing requirements, financial sector reform and bank supervision will promote better conditions for micro enterprise development.
Less than five percent of Latin American rnicroentrepreneurs have access to formal financial services. Deposit services are rarely geared to these businesspeople, especially in rural areas. The small loans micro entrepreneurs usually need generally are less attractive to traditional formal financial institutions because of their high transaction costs.
Micro entrepreneurs also lack access to services such as marketing, training in basic business skills, and technology transfer.
(Source: The IDB and Micro enterprise - Promoting Growth with Equity )

Marketing and It's Functions

Marketing:
Marketing is a managment process which identifies, anticipates and supplies customer reqirements efficiently and profitably.(Charterd Institiute Of Marketing U.K)

Functions Of Marketing :

According to Prof. G.B Giles there are seven functions of markeing.

1. Marketing Research
2. Marketing Planning
3. Product Development
4. Advertisement and Salespromotion
5. Selling and Distribution
6. Aftersales and Service
7. Public Relation

1. Marketing Research:

"Marketing research is the function that links the consumer, customer, and public to the marketer through information - information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve understanding of marketing as a process. Marketing research specifies the information required to address these issues, designs the methods for collecting information, manages and implements the data collection process, analyzes, and communicates the findings and their implications."
(American Marketing association - Official Definition of Marketing Research)

OR
The systematic gathering, recording, analyzing, and use of data relating to the transfer and sale of goods and services from producer to consumer.

2. Marketing Planning :

A logical sequence and a series of activities leading to the setting of marketing objectives and the formulation of plans for achieving them.

OR

Marketing planning is the process to creat a roadmap and know about the need of market before the development of a product.

OR

Marketing planning involves assessing the environmental situation and accordingly chalking out the roadmap towards accomplishing long-term marketing objectives of an organization.

3. Product Development :

The revitalization of a product through the introduction of a new concept or consumer benefit. Product development is part of the product life cycle. The concepts or benefits that can be implemented range from modification of the product to simply introducing new packaging.

4. Advertisement and sales promotion :

Any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an
identified sponsor.
Sales Promotions are short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a product or
service.

5. Selling and Distribution :

The exchange of goods for an agreed sum of money is called selling.

Act of distributing or portioning something out; particular group to which something is distributed (e.g. a newspaper or magazine); allotment; systematic division of items into parts; (Statistics) probability or frequency with which items are distributed into various groups

6. Aftersales and Services:

A company's after-sales service is all the help and information that it provides to customers after they have bought a particular product.

7. Public Relation :

Building good relations with the company’s various publics by obtaining favorable publicity,
building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavorable rumors, stories, and
events.

Public Relations Functions
• Press
Relations
• Product
Publicity
• Public Affairs
• Lobbying
• Investor Relations
• Development

Public Relations Tools
• News
• Speeches
• Corporate Identity
Materials
• Mobile
Marketing
• Special Events
• Written Materials
• Audiovisual
Materials
• Public Service Activities.

Terms on Gender

ACCESS
Definition
Women and men's opportunities to obtain or use resources (food, credit, technology, etc.) or services (education, health, etc.).
The ability and opportunity to acquire resources do not necessarily imply that people will have the power to command or control the benefits that derive from these activities.
It is recommended to distinguish between " use of " and " control over" a resource. Often women have access to land, seeds and/or credit, but do not have the decision-making power over that resource. (Moser, C., 1989").
Example
WFP accepts the challenge to improve women's access to longer-term assets, while recognizing the institutional and cultural constrains which slows down progress.
BENEFICIARY
Definition
Person and/or group of persons who benefit from a specific project, Programme or other form of development and/or emergency intervention. In order for the project or intervention to target its beneficiary group successfully, it is recommended that the beneficiaries be classified in terms of gender (women, men; girls, boys) and age, as well as in terms of socio-economic class and cultural affinity, so as to affinity, so as to define better the characteristics of the group in question.
Case-Load: Number of beneficiaries. In line with -WFP's people-centered approach, it is recommended that " number of beneficiaries" be used instead of caseload; the latter has a numerical and statistical connotation.
Example
While emergency operations are directed to stricken populations as a whole, women and children tend to the major direct beneficiaries of WFP food assistance, not by design, but of necessity, because women and children have fewer options than men, viz., mobility, alternative sources of livelihood, tradable assets at their disposal or skills.

BOTTOM UP APPROACH
Definition
A bottom-up approach means that interventions must always be planned and implemented with the participation of both women and men, and measured in terms of how such interventions will affect people's lives in ways that are meaningful to their priorities.
Example
It is evident from the data that women, in many African countries are the main participants in food-for-work programs. There is a potential food-for-work program to increase the assets and resources of women if they are planned and implemented with their full participation.
CAPACITY-BUIDING
Definition
A set of actions aimed at strengthening country offices, national counterparts and NGOs involved in the implementation of project in developing countries. It is expected that capacity building will help nation offices in developing countries to achieve self-reliance.
Example
Capacity-building activities for gender include the following: the recruitment of local gender country offices to apply assessment tools and make recommendation for follow-up action, replication and subsequent training of staff and counterparts. The majority of country offices plan to revise the Monitoring and Evaluation system. The Gender Action Fund will be used to enhance the Training of Trainers capacity within WFP and counterparts, to conduct socio-economic and gender training workshop that will include national staff and counterparts, and to carry out nation and local training.
COMMUNITY
Definition
People who live in local administrative unit, such as in a municipality; or are associated ethnically such as in a tribe; or belong to a local rural or urban ecosystem, such as people of a neighborhood; or individuals a common framework of interests. A community is not a homogeneous entity, and there are relationships of power within it .The member of a community have different needs, priorities and roles. It is common for women to have little influence over community organization and usually they do not take decisions, which affect the community as a whole.
Example
Sometimes there are contradictions between involving the community and gender objectives. In Kenya community-based food distribution systems proved to be biased towards refugee leaders who are mostly men. WFP (World Food Programme) and UNHCR eventually abandoned this system in favor of a centralized food distribution where food is distributed under supervision to registered card-holders who are, in most cases, the senior member/head of household, thus giving women more chance to participate.
All community members need to be able to play a role in decision-making that affects their livelihood, in particular over access to and management of common resources. This implies the right to set up community gatherings and organization. Women must be able to fully participate in these processes.
CONTROL
Definition
In a development lexicon, control refers to the capacity to make decisions over a resources or situation. It is important to differentiate between access to and control over the use of resources, on the one hand, and access to and control over the benefits derived from the mobilization of resources on the other. Even where women have unrestrained use of resources, they are not always able to realize the gains from their use.
Example
The principle of targeting food to families or groups of families has been applied in most of the free distribution in the Great Lakes region and has resulted in a more efficient and equitable system. Under these systems beneficiaries are well informed in advance of their entitlements, and are then responsible for dividing up food among themselves. Food distribution through women (heads of households or senior female members) and their participation as managers has been vigorously promoted. Several women's groups have been organized and trained for this purpose by NGOs.
In Honduras gender analysis in this project will permit verification of whether women's access to and control over resources has improved and if they have gained decision-making positions in community organizations.
Women are found to be the main collectors of food during the distribution process. However, this does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that women have full control over the food collected from the distribution sites.
DECISION-MAKING
Definition
Control over a resource, including labor or development processes. It is necessary to separate various spheres of decision-making: one of production (of food or goods) where decisions are often taken by men, and the other of reproduction or human resource maintenance activities (including all the household tasks involved in caring for family members), where decisions are often taken by women; these are linked by a third sphere in the use of income, where decisions are often by men. The person in the household who has control over the resources is often the one who decides how to allocate intra-household resources, including food. Significant evidence shows that when women have decision-making power in their household, the trend is to convert more resources into food for family consumption. It is important to understand the decision-making process within household in order to address health and nutrition and household food security programs adequate.
Example
In Angola committees were created to represent people affected, but representatives were normally selected from the traditional authority, the party and the administration and they are all male. Women were therefore also excluded from these committees. The situation in Goma and Bukavu was somewhat different as women were organized in associations on all camps and they have made efforts to penetrate the decision-making structures even though with difficulty. Most of the camp were male-dominated.
In Nicaragua, women play an important role in the decision-making process, since they are involved in the establishment, management and administration of the centers as well as in day-to-day activities.
DEVELOPMENT
Definition
A process through which men and women, with varying degrees of external support, increase their options for improving their quality of life.
Development is based on women and men's mobilization, utilizing local resources to the utmost in a process in which their needs are met, their organizations are strengthened and the environment is preserved. Funds deployed in the development process have to be used in an efficient and cost-effective manner. WFP channels food aid with a view to increasing opportunities to improve the nutrition status of those most in need, enhancing their living conditions, supporting their access to water, health facilities, school enrolment and attendance, improving their access to credit and labor, and strengthening their participation in community organizations.
Example
Women are involved in development everywhere and all the time. The point is to create conditions under which women can be involved in social and economic transformation on better terms. The involvement of women in the development process is not just a matter of ethics, but of good economics.
DISADVANTAGE GROUP
Definition
Group within a society that is marginalized and has reduced access to resources and services such as education, health, credit and power. Some examples of disadvantaged groups are those affected by natural or man-made disasters (Such as refugees, returnees or internally displaced persons), some ethnic groups, older adults, children, and disabled persons. Women and/or girls in these groups tend to have fewer opportunities than their male counterparts.
DISCRIMINATION
Definition
A difference in treatment based on age, sex, ethnicity, religion or other factors, rather than on individual merit (IPS; 1996). Discrimination reduces the opportunities to have access to resources, health, education, employment or power.
Example
It is evident that women are marginalized in emergency and disaster situations as they are excluded from the decision-making structures, given the traditional nature of the committees that are established or utilized.
DISEMPOWERMENT
Definition
Any action, policy, development and/or relief Program or process through which women's and men's priorities, needs and interests are further ignored, reducing their participation in decision-making and representing an obstacle to their economic, political and social improvement.
Example
One problem has been identified as presenting a bottleneck to women's participation in elections. In many countries refugees are registered to participate in elections through their registration cards. Registration cards only hold the name of the heads of households who in the large majority of cases are men. Refugee women are not aware of these conditions for voting. They have underlined the fact that they do not participate in election committees and are not informed of the outcome of meetings. refugee women feel that this process is contributing to marginalized them.
EMPOWERMENT
Definition
A process though which women and men in disadvantage position increase their access to knowledge, resources, decision-making power and raise their awareness of participation in their communities, in order to reach a level of control over their own environment. The process of integrating gender equality and empowerment of women in WFP has major implications for policies and programming, and for the development of human resources.
Example
In India in a major move to empower women as a key structural measure for poverty alleviation, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (Panchayat Raj Act) of 1993 ensured a minimum of seats for women in all elected offices of 250,000 local bodies. About one million women are emerging as decision-makers; 75,000 are expected to become chairpersons at the village, block and district level.
ENTITLEMENT
Definition
The right to have command over resources. It can take the form of rights over resources. It can take the form of rights over labor, land, goods and cash, and includes rights of use and/or sale and purchase. Command over resources is not typically controlled by law as ownership is. Each member of a household is entitled to a certain quantity of commodities, including food, according to his/her sex and age. Therefore, food entitlements are determined by the endowments (land, labor, and livestock) of a person or family, and the amount of food they can acquire through trade and/or production (Sen, A; 1990 46, FAO;1990 16 ). Usually women and men, and girls and boys in a household have different entitlements over food, which is part of the customary practices.
Example
Gender differences in entitlements exist in many patrilineal societies and bear much responsibility for intra-household welfare differentials and, hence, differences in opportunity set. In contemporary societies the distribution of resources occurs through a complex system of claims, which are in turn embedded within social relations and practices that govern possession, distribution and use patterns of those societies.
FAMILY
Definition
A group of persons of common ancestry; living under the same roof and sharing domestic resources and/or responsibilities.
There are many different types of families. These include:
Extended family: a family comprised not only of parents and children, but also of relatives living in proximity;
Biological family: a group consisting of two parents and their biological children;
Nuclear family: group consisting of parents and their children (biological and/or adoptive) (IPS;1996 30 ).
Family members have different roles, needs and priorities, based on sex and age. In planning development or relief interventions, it is necessary to examine family composition and the various roles of family members. Usually the terms family composition and household are used interchangeably. In a strict sense, the term family is use to refer to common ancestry, while the term household is used more for a socio-economic unit.
Example
In a polygamous marriage co-wives will only share food when the husband instructs them to do so. It becomes important for WFP staff then, to ensure that all wives in a family are registered and benefiting from the relief program. In Sankhari Malawi, it was discovered there were families where one wife was receiving aid and the other was not. (WFP; 1995 98 )
While various concepts the family exists in different social, cultural, legal and political systems, the family is the basic unit of the society and as such is entitled to receive comprehensive protection and support. The process of rapid demographic and socio-economic change throughout the world has influenced patterns of family formation and family life, generating considerable change in family composition and structure. Traditional notions of gender-based division of parental and domestic functions and participation in the paid labour force do not reflect current realities and aspirations, as more and more women in all parts of the take up paid employment outside the home. At the same time, widespread migration, forced shifts of population caused by violent conflicts and wars, urbanization, poverty, natural disasters and other causes of displacement have placed greater strains on the family, since assistance from extended family support networks is often no longer available.
FEMALE
Definition
The term female refers to biologically-based refers as to women. The term women or girls refers to biologically and socially or culturally based references to gender ( IPS; 1996). It is recommended that the term " women" used, when possible, since " female" has a more biological connotation.
FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
Definition
This concept refers to the fact that women and men experience poverty and its effects in different ways. Women are more negatively affected than men as a result of economic globalization are and more specifically, as a result of the macro-economic policies of many developing countries, which often include structural adjustment programs.
Example
Women and men experience poverty in different ways and the feminization of poverty may be a question less of whether more women than men are poor than of the severity of poverty and the greater hardship women face in lifting themselves and their children out of the trap.

GENDER
Definition
The differences between women and men within the same household and within and between cultures that are socially and culturally constructed and change over time. These differences are reflected in: roles, responsibilities, access to resources, constraints, opportunities, needs, perceptions, views, etc. held by both women and men. Thus, gender is not a synonym for women, but considers both women and men and their interdependent relationships. ( Moser, C. 1993).
Example
WFP policies recognize that " gender" is a critical variable in project and overall development planning". Gender refers to socially acquired and culturally specific attributes distinguishing women and men. A focus on gender recognizes socially and culturally determined differences between women and men, primarily in relation to the household division of labor, and their access to and control over production resources and assets.
GENDER ANALYSIS
Definition
Examination of a social process which considers the roles played by women and men, including issues such as the division of labor, productive and reproductive activities, access to and control over resources and benefits, and socio-economic and environmental factors that influence women and men. Gender analysis also refers to the systematic investigation of the differential impacts of development on women and men (OXFAM; 1994 40; IPS; 1996 30). Gender analysis is a tool that is applied in WFP throughout the project cycle (appraisal, monitoring and evaluation), as well as to any other assessment or analysis of benefits, beneficiaries or executing agencies. It is also applied in the design and implementation of policies, in the development of human resources, training, etc.
Example
Gender analysis is project work seeks to organize information in such a way as to distinguish the resources, activities, potentials and constraints of women and men in a given beneficiary groups and to ensure maximum efficiency and sustainability in pursuing a development goal.
Improving gender analysis and planning is another focus of training for WFP counterparts. National workshops are held to improve the capacity to work with partners on more equitable measures to select beneficiaries, design activities, manage food commodities and develop food aid programs in partnership with women's fliteracy and leadership development programs
The construction of roads might have different effects in different socio-economic groups in the project area, for example, on the landless or on cash-crop producers and subsistence farmers (men and women). Gender analysis should form part of the analysis of the differential effects of the road on each of the major socio-economic groups.
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD)
Definition
An approach to development based on the premise that all policies, programmes and projects should reflect the needs, priorities, roles and the differential impact of development processes on men and women. The GAD approach strives for gender equality by seeking full recognition and understanding of the contributions that women make to development. It aims to increase women's access to and control over resources on equal terms with men, as gender analysis has repeatedly shown that women do not benefit equality. (UNRISD, UNDP; 1995 65). GAD represents a shift from the marginal position of "Women's issues" to the center of the development agenda, in both institutional and theoretical terms. This has led to the rethinking of institutional structures, rules, priorities and goals, and to a substantial redistribution of resources (Kaber, N., and Subrahmanian, R; 199632).
GENDER AWARENESS
Definition
The recognition that the life experiences, expectations, and needs of women and men are different, that many times they involve inequity, and that they are subject to change. In development and relief work, gender awareness refers to the perception and realization of the ways in which women and men participate in the development process, how they are affected by it, and how they benefit from it. Experience has shown that without such awareness, not only will development and relief interventions fail to meet the needs and serve the interests of all people they are intended to help, but they may indeed hinder the situation of women.
Example
A longitudinal study in rural Guatemala revealed through statistical analyses that the differences in weight and height between two groups of adolescents were due to differences established when they were three years old. The weight and height of boys was three times better than that of girls.
The strength of the WFP Women's Training Centers in Bangladesh seems to be in the awareness building side, not exclusively through the process of formal training, but also through the informal regular 'get-togethers' during which women share achievements and problems.
GENDER BALANCE
Definition
WFP refers to gender balance as the goal of having the same number of women and men staff in the different levels of the organizational structure. WFP is making special efforts to increase the number of women staff members in high-level positions.
Example
Although much work remains to be done, the number of female staff has increased substantially at all levels and in all categories, through a proactive recruitment and promotion policy, and a better retention rate.
GENDER-BASED DIVISION OF LABOR
Definition
The division of labor in societies is directly tied to socio-cultural patterns, which determine the tasks that women and men should perform. Generally speaking, societies use the different reproductive roles that stem from biological differences between women and men as the basis to divide their tasks both in the home and in the public sphere
In public spheres male domination is well recognized, while in the household economy and in the domestic sphere, it is necessary to analyze the division of labor and power relation of women and men in order to understand their dynamics. In all societies there is a set of norms that demarcate responsibilities for the decades, in some societies the division of labor between women and men has changed.
Example
Taking into account the account of work a person can do in four hours, an NGO in Malawi established work norms. The beneficiaries work in the project in the afternoon, after laboring in their fields. Generally women and men must fulfil same work norms before earning a day's food. However, women find it difficult to complete their household chores, as well as their field and project work. In this case the project norms had to be re-evaluated.
GENDER BIAS
Definition
Actions against women (or men) based on the perception that the other sex is not equal and does not have the same rights.
Example
In most cases women were not involved in the food distribution process as employees or decision-maker. The data show that the majority of employees, field monitors and supervisors were male. As the ration cards were in the men's name, women had limited access to or control over the food rations.
GENDER-DIFFERENTIATED IMPACT
Definition
the effects of policies, programs, projects and/or measures, which have a different impact on women and men (IPS199630). These may widen or narrow the existing gaps between women and men in their control over resources and benefits derived from them. In countries manifesting gender gaps, WFP implements measures aimed at achieving a differential impact, benefiting women and girls.
Example
Emergency situation affect women and men differently. For example in a study of time spent in a day which compared the lives of women and men, it was found that women's normal activities were accentuated by the hardship of life in the camp, with less time for sleeping and productive activities. The lives of men had also changed in that their previous role had been distributed.
By the end of 1995, approximately 500 Village Development Committees had been established in Combodia. Members were elected. Women had to represent at least 40 percent of the membership. There was a Ministry for Women's Affairs, elevated from the former secretariat. A National Policy on women had been promulgated to guide ministries and agencies on how to meet women's needs. The First Socio-economic Development Plan 1996-2000 incorporates explicit considerations of the role of women in development process.
GENDER EMPOWERMENT MEASURE (GEM)
Definition
This index, developed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) quantitatively measures the empowerment of women on a country-by-country basis. The index measures gender inequality in three key areas: a) Power over economic resources based on earned income: b) access to professional opportunities and participation in economic decision-making; and c) access to political opportunities and participation in political decision-making, i.e. it indicates women's participation in political and economic life and in decision-making positions such as by the number of parliamentary seats and the number of professional and managerial jobs held by women. The greater the gender disparity, the lower the GEM.

GENDER EQUALITY
Definition
A term which reflects an equal sharing of power between women and men, in their equal access to education, health, administrative and managerial positions, equal pay for work of equal value and equal seats in parliament, among others (United Nations; 199558; UNDP; 199549). WFP shares the United Nations' goal of achieving gender equality. The process of integrating gender equality and women's empowerment into WFP's policies has major implications for programming, and as regards the development of human resources. WFP will pursue the following four strategies; a) staff and counterpart capacity-building in analysis and planning, taking into the differences between women and men; b) managers' role in mainstreaming gender issues; c) development of guidelines on gender equality and empowerment; and d) exchange of experiences.
Example
Due to the challenge that grass-root participation poses to existing norms and power relations, introducing "participation" may result in the creation of conflicts within the community. Tradition should not be evoked as a way of avoiding the issue of gender equality
GENDER EQUITY
Definition
The fair distribution of resources and benefits between women and men according to cultural norms and values. This concept has different implication in different countries because it is based on different cultural standards. It is usually based on the traditional perception that women and men do not necessarily have the same needs and rights. The UN system promotes gender equality, pushing beyond cultural definitions of gender equality.
GENDER FOCAL POINT
Definition
Staff of the country offices and headquarters who: a) monitor the implementation of WFP's Gender Action Plan; b) maintain relationships with Gender Focal Points in government and other relevant organizations; and c) acts as training and briefing resources mobilizes on gender analytical planning.
GENDER FRAMEWORK

Definition
A series of analytical tools which set out different key categories of factors that are relevant in the analysis of specific topics, including gender variables . These tools will contribute to the understanding of women's and men's roles, their needs, access to power, their coping starting points for designing and programming WFP assistance from relief to development.

GENDER GAP

Definition
The disparity (measured quantitatively) between women and men, and girls and boys, in their access to resources, education, health, services or power. The reduction or expansion of gender gaps can better illustrate to development workers to what extent women and men, and girls and boys have benefited from project or policy interventions in areas such as education, health care and food distribution.

Example
WFP undertook assessments to identify cases where a gender gap existed in a management of the assets created by food-for-work activities, in the distribution of their long term benefits or in access of training and credit facilities. In Equador, the computerized monitoring and evaluation system now includes indicators to follow up project benefits from a gender perspective; in Bolivia, as a result of the analysis the monitoring and reporting requirements included in the plan of operations were modified to take this specific concern more into account.
The situation of women in Yemen (March 1996) shows that 45.9 percent of urban females' aged 10 and above are illiterate compared to 16.3 percent of males.
Where gender-gaps exists, specific targets are being introduced in country program to invest 60 percent of resource in women and girls. For example, in the Bangladesh Country Program, specific targets were introduced within the Rural Development Program to reach more women beneficiaries and to meet the required investment level of overall resources in women and girls.

GENDER MAINSTREAMING

Definition
Gender is a dimension that has to be incorporated in all policies, and development planning and processes, since it helps to understand better the attitude, needs and roles of women and men in society, on the basis of social, economic, political and cultural factors. Thus, gender has to be considered as part of the general analysis of an activity, policy, program, event or process. It should be mainstreamed and should not be considered as a separate issue.

Example
In Honduras, the WFP project mechanisms to ensure benefits to women will be: a) women will participate at the level of 50 percent in committees at the community and municipality levels in food distribution, results monitoring and assessments of projects that will be carried out under a food-for-development scheme; b) a simple monitoring tool will be distributed to the Field Units to monitor food distribution among household members, and access to, and control over food and other resources; c) the training package delivered by UNFPA, UNICEF, PAHO and WFP on health and nutrition, project implementation and community building will include gender as a cross-cutting issue; d) the Management Units will receive advice from the leading "Women's Office" on how to meet the Commitments to Women made at the Beijing Conference in 1995; e) the terms of reference of project personnel will include gender sensitivity, especially for Management Unit staff; h) the project will organize a gender workshop every year with the participation of implementing agencies (NGOs, municipal councils and the health sector) to access how gender issues are being included in project implementation; and g) data collection and indicators will be desegregated by gender.

GENDER NEEDS

Definition
Since women and men play different roles, have differential access to and control over resources and face different types of constraints, they usually have different needs and priorities. When planing development interventions, it is often assumed that household members have the same needs. In these cases, women's needs are often not expressed
Practical gender needs (PGN): Need related to the women; men and children play in society. Activities which address the practical needs of women include a) reducing their workload; b) increasing their incomes, among others. (OXFAM; 1995 41). PGN do not address the subordinate position of women in society; therefore, they are not directly linked with women's empowerment.
Strategic gender needs (SGN): A need that questions the traditional roles that women and men play in society. SGN is a response to inequalities in decision-making positions and long-term benefits (Moser, C.; 1989 36 ). Addressing the strategic needs of both women and men requires long-term planning, and requires work with both to bring about changes in gender relations. Activities which address strategic gender needs include: a) achieving equality of legal rights such as land tenure; b) improving access to productive resources; c) enhancing participation in decision-making; d) acquiring equal opportunities in employment; e) taking up positions of power; and f) gaining the right to participate in decisions about development interventions.

Example
Some 70 percent of full-time farmers in Malawi are women and one third of rural households are headed by women; yet women have less access than men to agricultural extension, credit, technology or inputs. As a result, they comprise a large portion of the rural poor and are less able than other farmers to cope with the consequences of drought. The needs of such women, especially those of rural households headed by women, should be addressed in both an emergency free distributions of maize and food-for-work, development projects.
If WFP is going to introduce a gender-sensitive, community-based policy concerning food distribution, it will be necessary to avoid a static perspective on what constitutes the differential needs of men and women. It must also consider the different requirement of women and men at different stages of the life cycle. In this respect, the elderly children and adolescents are also part of a gender-sensitive approach that acknowledges the differential needs of a population.
In Guatemala the participation of women as full members in the sectoral committees is effective. The needs of to the extent that the existing assistance fits their needs.

GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Definition
A focus which introduces a framework of analysis to be used in order to be used in order to assess how women and men affect and are affected by policies, programs, projects and activities in any development or relief interventions.

Example
The determinants to define the level at which refugees in eastern Zaire achieve food security will be more relevant and systematic if refugee women and men are studied in different group, taking into account the specificity of each group. Access to resources, mobility, political conditions, security, availability of non-food items, level of vulnerability, etc. are experienced and perceived and perceived differently by refugees according to their sex, age, wealth and social status.

GENDER-RELATED DEVELOPMENT INDEX (GDI)

Definition
The GDI is based on the Human Development Index (HDI) 5 adjusted for gender inequality. The GDI adjusts the average achievement of each country in life expectancy, educational attainment and income, in accordance with the degree of disparity in achievement between women and men. The greater the gender disparity in basic human development, the lower a country's GDI

GENDER RELATIONS

Definition
Analysis of women and men's positions in relationship to each other. (IPS; 1996 30). As a result of unequal gender relations, women's practical needs for the basics of life, including water, food and shelter may be met but not their strategic needs. Women often are unable to later outcomes according to their own wishes due to unequal power relations based on gender.

Example
In most regions of the world today woman are represented in a wide range of professions and occupations, but they continue to be stereotyped as dependent upon a male breadwinner within a family unit. This reflects a crystallization of traditional gender relations. As a result, women have limited opportunities to become decision-maker, whether in the family, in their communities, or at the national political level. WFP is attempting to rectify this situation by providing opportunities for women in decision-making roles, e.g., in food management and distribution.


GENDER ROLE

Definition
Socially determined behaviors, tasks and responsibilities for women and men based on socially perceived differences that define how women and men should act. Gender roles change over time, through individual choices or with social or political changes such as economic crises, natural disasters and consequent emergencies, and post-war situations in which the decision-making power and responsibilities of women and men may vary

Example
While the responsibility of African women in preserving the family has always proven to be critical, in situations of exile the role of women becomes even more difficult. For example, many women and girls after the Rwandese tragedy have found themselves forced to assume the lone role of family breadwinner. Refugee women's survival strategies in eastern Zaire in ensuring the economic well-being of the household has led to increasing responsibility on their part and changed roles within the family.
During post-war situations women often become the sole providers of food for children, the sick and the elderly, as men are absent. At the same time, they often lack the necessary resources and sometimes also the experience to make decisions for the entire household. They may also be expected to revert to their former traditional roles despite their new skills. Consequently, the physical and psychological stress on these women is enormous.


GENDER-SENSITIVITY
Definition
Understanding and consideration of socio-cultural factors underlying sex-based discrimination. The term also applies to attitudes that socialize girls and boys into certain behaviors or opportunities, for example, pushing boys to play sports or not expecting girls to do well at sports. (IPS, 1996 30). Gender-sensitive planing uses specific methods and tools to provide women and girls more opportunities for their participation in the development process and to measure the impact of planned activities on women and men.
Example
WFP Bolivia has prepared an Action Plan to promote and monitor the role of women in WFP's activities from 1997 to 2001.Work plans must include: a) design of a system for gender involvement by trimester; b) definition of indicators to monitor follow-up actions; c) creation of a gender analysis matrix to analyze activities undertaken; and d) revision of M&E forms to provide gender data and information on credit, training, food distribution and planning. Furthermore, the major part of the technical and administrative personnel will be women.
Following up on the Commitments to women made in Beijing in 1995, memoranda of understanding (MOU) on joint and individual responsibilities were signed with seven international partners in 1996. The MOUs define the following implementation and monitoring requirements: the application of a participatory mode of planning that considers the specific needs and potential of refugee and displaced women; the provision of appropriate and adequate food for women and children at risk; and measures taken to ensure that women hold key positions in the management of food aid.
A gender-sensitive program addresses the differential losses of both women and men, and seeks to anticipate the balance of power in the interest of community survival.
GENDER TASK FORCE
Definition
The WFP Gender Task Force advises the Program on the overall strategy and monitors progress in the implementation of a WFP Action Plan on Commitments to Women. Chaired by the Deputy Executive Director, the Gender Task Force operates at the senior management level in the field and at headquarters to ensure that progress achieved is sustained throughout the Program.
GENDER TRAINING
Definition
Teaching activity aimed at developing a common understanding of gender policies and concepts, as well as skills in targeting, beneficiary participation and monitoring of gender equality.
Example
In the Latin American and Caribbean region, gender policies and practices were integrated into WFP's regional planning and training workshops. All international staff and some national officers have participated.
National gender training workshops with counterparts were organized in Bolivia, Guatemala, Malawi, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Tanzania, and Uganda. Workshops were followed up with the preparation of gender action plans.
GRASS-ROOTS ORGANIZATION
Definition
Community-based group, which is part of civil society and represents the interests of its members. The construction of legitimacy (meaning the ownership and organization) is an important issue which grass roots organization is faced.
Example
In order to achieve a grass-roots level of participation in both emergency and development interventions, it is important to identify the different actors who are to participate in terms of class, gender, and ethnic representation.
MALE
Definition
The term male refers to biologically based references to sex. (IPS; 199630). In line with WFP's people-centered approach, it is recommended that the term "man" be used when possible, since "male" has a biological connotation.

MAN
Definition
Refers to socially or culturally based references to adult males. The term male should be used when referring to biologically based references to sex.
MATERNITY
Definition
The quality or state of being a mother. Refers to tasks, responsibilities and activities that a woman performs to give birth and/or bring up children. Women make a significant contribution to welfare of the family and to the development of society which is not always recognized. The social importance of maternity and the role of parents in the family and in the upbringing of children should be acknowledged. These activities require shared responsibilities of parents and society as a whole. Maternity, motherhood and the role of women in procreation must not be a basis for discrimination nor restrict the participation of women in society. It is important to recognize the important role played by women in caring for the family members.
Expectant woman-mother It is recommended to use expectant mother rather than "pregnant woman''. Expectant mother implies not only the fact of delivering a child, but also a human condition related to motherhood.
Nursing mother, A women who breastfeeds her children. It is recommended to use the term "nursing'' mother rather than "lactating'' women. "Nursing mother'' not only describes the fact of providing milk to children, but also covers aspects related to human care.
Example
In designing a food intervention, a hierarchy among individual objectives needs to be established to reflect the relative importance of the causes of nutrition and health problems faced by expectant and nursing mothers and infants in the specific situation.
WFP will provide assistance to those women and children whose nutritional vulnerability is directly linked to a lack of sufficient and appropriate food intake. Priority will be given to malnourished children and undernourished expectant and nursing mothers. Food delivery performance, child growth and birth weight are the key indicators for the monitoring process.

MATRILINEAL
Definition
Societies or groups organized on the basis of female descent in which the identity, family name or inheritance is determined through the mother's line.
OWNERSHIP
Definition
The right to have control over a resource.
It is important to note the differences between having control over and having access to resources. To have decision-making power over it, which normally derives from ownership of it. To have access to a resource is to have the possibility of making use of it, but not necessarily of having any control over it.
To own, to have access to, and to control resources are actions that are generally gender-based. For example, in some cultures, women do not have the legal right to own land or livestock. They therefore do not have decision-making power over them, even if they make of and manage them on a daily basis.
Example
At the initial stage of a project in Bolivia, women conducted most of the work; notably, the care and milking of the animals, which were purchased with project credit, and delivery of milk to processing plants. However, full membership in the producers' associations and benefits from market proceeds were often denied to them, on the grounds that their husbands represented them sufficiently. After discussion, the project-operating manual was changed to ensure the legal registration of the women and their businesses in their names. This measure, together with the provision of credit and technical assistance to women, ensures that they have control over dairy production and distribution, and the sale of milk.
PARTICIPATION
Definition
To take part in an activity, endeavor, or objective; to engage or have a share in something in common with others.
In a development lexicon, participation refers to individuals, groups' communities and institutions taking part in the decision-making process related to the development effort. Participation must include persons or groups marginalized or discriminated from decision-making positions. It is often necessary to develop specific strategies and tools to promote the participation of marginalized or discriminated groups such as women or ethnic minorities. Participation leads to empowerment.
WFP recognizes the following level of people's participation in projects: a) as food recipients; b) as workers; c) as consulted members; d) as planners; and e) as decision-makers. WFP also recognizes that community participation is a promising and dynamic approach that is sustainable, needs oriented and crucial to equitable rehabilitation and development. The concern is for women to be able to participate fully at all level of action and decision-making.
Example
The participation of women and men in food aid operations is an essential component in disaster situations, as it empowers the community to control the information and resources to which they are entitled.
Community participation is critical to promote self-reliance and long-term sustainability of projects. In Malawi, Mozambique, Angola and Zaire to empower women and men, to improve their assets, skills and capabilities, and to deal with their vulnerable and food-insecure situation, it is imperative that they participate in the identification of their needs, and the planning and implementation of programs to facilitate the recovery and reconstruction of their communities.
PEOPLE
Definition
A body of persons united by a common culture, tradition or sense of kinship, usually having a common language, and common institutions and beliefs, and often politically organized. In most cases, in order to de-emphasize the anonymity of the individuals being addressed, the term "people'' should be further broken down into gender, age, class and ethnic group, where appropriate.
Example
To improve the lives of the poorest people is the main goal of WFP's mission. The Mission Statement clearly defines WFP's mandate in the development area as support of economic and social development with the core policies and strategies of improving the nutritional status and quality of life of the most vulnerable people, especially women and children, during critical periods of their life.
POLICY
Definition
Course of action adopted by a government, organization, and institution, group or individual, to guide Programme activities . Policies are not neutral. Gender-sensitive policies are those addressed to meet the targeted needs of women and men on equal terms within existing distribution of resources and responsibilities.
Gender-blind policies: Policies that do not make distinction between sexes. Assumptions incorporate biases in favor of existing gender relations and so tend to exclude women.
Gender-aware policies: that acknowledge that development actors are women as well as, men that they are constrained in different, and often unequal ways, and that they may consequently have differing and sometimes conflicting needs, interests and priorities
The WFP Committee on food Aid Policies and Programs (CFA) approved the food aid policy on women in development in 1987 and the sectoral guidelines on gender variables in food-assisted project in 1989. These have been reinforced by the 1995 Commitments for Women. The WFP policies address two priority areas for improving the quality of projects: the quality of women's participation and equality in the distribution of benefits. WFP's Mission Statement indicates that women's advancement is the key to solving problems of hunger and poverty, and ensures a broad-based participation of the target group population in the design, implementation and monitoring of WFP supported activities.
Example
Nation food policies often neglect to take into account the common maldistribution of food among households or even communities and regions. In addition, explicit attention is necessary to how food is distributed within the household.
Because gender is an integral part of social life, all policy is filtered though a gender lens; policies can perpetuate gender is an integral part of social life, all policy is filtered through a gender less; policies can perpetuate gender inequality, but others can serve to break down gender inequality.

POVERTY
Definition
The failure to meet people's "basic needs", i.e., the incapacity to achieve the necessary levels of health, nutrition, housing, education and employment to be able to look forward to a reasonable duration of life.
Poverty is a complex and multidimensional problem with origins in both the nation and international domains. The lack of access to healthy and adequate food for all family members is one of the most critical components of poverty which is further aggravated by the exclusion from decision-making and lack participation in local organizations and political processes. Poverty affects disproportionately women and children, the weak and disabled, and people in rural areas. In almost all countries, there are more women then men at the lowest levels of income, and households by women than men at the lowest level of income and households headed by women are among the poorest groups in every society (United Nations; 1997 63). The application of gender analysis to a wide range of economic policies and Programs is therefore crucial to poverty reduction strategies.
Example
Hunger and poverty are not impartial. They beset women much more then men. Seven out of 10 of the world's hungry poor are women and girls. When civil wars, drought and other disasters ravage a land, three out of four victims are women and young children.
SEX
Definition
The biological characteristics of being male or female that are genetically determined.
SOCIAL NORMS
Definition
Standards or models of behavior practiced by societies and rooted in their cultural, ethnic and historical backgrounds. Often social norms limit the participation of women in mainstream development, due to the fact that they are limited in their time, access to education, resources, services or their participation in decision-making processes.

Example
WFP in Yemen faces a great challenge. Yemen is one of the more conservative countries of the Middle East region; it is characterized by pronounced gender inequity. Taking account of social, cultural and political factors is particularly important at this time. Religious conservatism is leaving its mark on the manner and education. It is estimated that 78 percent of WFP's current beneficiaries are women (female students and nursing mother).
In Pakistan, data indicate a low utilization of Mother and Child Health services, with 38 percent of births attended by trained health personnel and 30 percent of expectant mothers immunized against tetanus. It appears that a variety of cultural and social factors have hindered women's full participation in and benefit from primary health services.
WOMEN-SPECIFIC PROJECT
Definition
A project addressed primarily to women. Such projects are often relatively small-scale, and have reduced budget, low governmental priorities and minimal impact. They may help to awareness on issues linked with women's lives and living conditions, deliver information and training, and be useful to test specific actions. However, these projects should be seen solely as an initial step in the enhancement of women's capacities and participation in the public sphere, to be followed by other joint programs.
WORK
Definition
Human activity that produces good and/or services. It is necessary to distinguish between productive (most often remunerated), and reproductive (usually non-remunerated) work. The term "invisible" labor refers to unremunerated subsistence household maintenance and agricultural work, mostly performed by women and girls. Invisible work includes tasks such as: carrying water and fuelwood, growing and processing primary agricultural produce for the household, and performing domestic work, including child care.
Example
When women are direct beneficiaries as workers, (under food for work) this approach values their contribution, transforming it into food rations, thus meeting three interrelated objective: a) ensuring food supply for household food security; b) valuing women's contribution through income in kind; and c) emphasizing women's importance in the household through direct control over the food they bring.